Romance Scam

Click here: => mmanagacap.fastdownloadcloud.ru/dt?s=YToyOntzOjc6InJlZmVyZXIiO3M6MzA6Imh0dHA6Ly9iYW5kY2FtcC5jb21fZHRfcG9zdGVyLyI7czozOiJrZXkiO3M6MjI6IlNhZmlhIGdhZGRhZmkgcGljdHVyZXMiO30=


As soon as I receive your email I will send you more information and also the contact of the financial institute in Ghana to contact them and make further claims of these funds to your possession and hold it till am out of this camp for investment purpose in your country. The following year, Libyan fighters began intercepting U.

A new, all-green banner was adopted as the country's flag. This led to the RCC's official abolition in March 1977. One of Gaddafi's Egyptian teachers, Mahmoud Efay, was reportedly sympathetic towards the future leader's political ideas, and advised him that a successful revolution would need the support of the army.

Images

For other people with the same name, see. Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi ; c. He was initially ideologically committed to and but later ruled according to his own. Within the military, he founded a revolutionary cell which deposed the -backed monarchy of in a. Having taken power, Gaddafi converted Libya into a republic governed by his. He nationalized the oil industry and used the increasing state revenues to bolster the military, fund foreign revolutionaries, and implement social programs emphasizing house-building, healthcare and education projects. He outlined his Third International Theory that year, publishing these ideas in. He officially adopted a symbolic role in governance but remained head of both the military and the Revolutionary Committees responsible for policing and suppressing dissent. During the 1970s and 1980s, Libya's unsuccessful border conflicts with and , support for foreign militants and alleged responsibility for the in Scotland left it increasingly isolated on the world stage. A particularly hostile relationship developed with the United States, United Kingdom, and Israel, resulting in the and -imposed. From 1999, Gaddafi shunned Arab socialism and encouraged economic privatization, rapprochement with and ; he was of the from 2009 to 2010. Amid the 2011 , protests against widespread corruption and unemployment broke out in eastern Libya. The situation descended into , in which on the side of the anti-Gaddafist NTC. The government was overthrown, and Gaddafi retreated to Sirte, only to be by NTC militants. A highly divisive figure, Gaddafi dominated Libya's politics for four decades and was the subject of a pervasive. He was decorated with various awards and praised for his stance, support for Arab, and then African, unity and for significant improvements that his government brought to the Libyan people's quality of life. Conversely, strongly opposed his social and economic reforms, and he was posthumously accused of sexual abuse. He was condemned by many as a whose authoritarian administration violated and financed global. His family came from a small, relatively uninfluential tribal group called the , who were in heritage. His mother was named Aisha died 1978 , and his father, Mohammad Abdul Salam bin Hamed bin Mohammad, was known as Abu Meniar died 1985 ; the latter earned a meagre subsistence as a goat and camel herder. Nomadic were illiterate and kept no birth records. As such, Gaddafi's date of birth is not known with certainty, and sources have set it in 1942 or in the spring of 1943, although his biographers and noted that it could have been pre-1940. His parents' only surviving son, he had three older sisters. Gaddafi's upbringing in Bedouin culture influenced his personal tastes for the rest of his life; he preferred the desert over the city and would retreat there to meditate. From childhood, Gaddafi was aware of the involvement of European colonialists in Libya; his nation was , and during the of it witnessed conflict between Italian and British troops. According to later claims, Gaddafi's paternal grandfather, Abdessalam Bouminyar, was killed by the Italian Army during the. At World War II's end in 1945, Libya was occupied by British and French forces. Although Britain and France intended on dividing the nation between their empires, the of the UN declared that the country be granted political independence. In 1951, the UN created the , a federal state under the leadership of a pro-Western monarch, , who banned political parties and centralized power in his monarchy. Education and political activism: 1950—1963 Gaddafi's earliest education was of a religious nature, imparted by a local Islamic teacher. Subsequently, moving to nearby Sirte to attend elementary school, he progressed through six grades in four years. Education in Libya was not free, but his father thought it would greatly benefit his son despite the financial strain. During the week Gaddafi slept in a , and at weekends walked 20 miles to visit his parents. At school, Gaddafi was bullied for being a Bedouin, but was proud of his identity and encouraged pride in other Bedouin children. Aside from that, he was the oldest boy in his class. From Sirte, he and his family moved to the market town of in , south-central Libya, where his father worked as a caretaker for a tribal leader while Muammar attended secondary school, something neither parent had done. Gaddafi was popular at this school; some friends made there received significant jobs in his later administration, most notably his best friend. Egyptian was Gaddafi's political hero. Many teachers at Sabha were Egyptian, and for the first time Gaddafi had access to pan-Arab newspapers and radio broadcasts, most notably the -based. Growing up, Gaddafi witnessed significant events rock the , including the , the , the of 1956, and the short-lived existence of the between 1958 and 1961. Gaddafi admired the political changes implemented in the under his hero, President. Nasser argued for ; the rejection of Western , , and ; and a transition from to. Gaddafi was influenced by Nasser's book, Philosophy of the Revolution, which outlined how to initiate a coup. One of Gaddafi's Egyptian teachers, Mahmoud Efay, was reportedly sympathetic towards the future leader's political ideas, and advised him that a successful revolution would need the support of the army. Gaddafi organized demonstrations and distributed posters criticizing the monarchy. In October 1961, he led a demonstration protesting against Syria's secession from the United Arab Republic, and raised funds to send cables of support to Nasser. Twenty students were arrested as a result of the disorder. Gaddafi and his companions also broke windows in a local hotel that was. To punish Gaddafi, the authorities expelled him and his family from Sabha. Gaddafi moved to , there attending Misrata Secondary School. Maintaining his interest in Arab nationalist activism, he refused to join any of the banned political parties active in the city—including the , the , and the —claiming that he rejected factionalism. He read voraciously on the subjects of Nasser and the of 1789, as well as the works of Syrian political theorist and biographies of , , and. Military training: 1963—1966 Gaddafi briefly studied History at the in , before dropping out to join the military. Despite his police record, in 1963 he began training at the , Benghazi, alongside several like-minded friends from Misrata. The armed forces offered the only opportunity for upward social mobility for underprivileged Libyans, and Gaddafi recognized it as a potential instrument of political change. Under Idris, Libya's armed forces were trained by the British military; this angered Gaddafi, who viewed the British as imperialists, and accordingly he refused to learn English and was rude to the British officers, ultimately failing his exams. British trainers reported him for insubordination and abusive behaviour, stating their suspicion that he was involved in the assassination of the military academy's commander in 1963. Such reports were ignored and Gaddafi quickly progressed through the course. With a group of loyal cadres, in 1964 Gaddafi founded the Central Committee of the Free Officers Movement, a revolutionary group named after Nasser's. Led by Gaddafi, they met clandestinely and were organized into a , offering their salaries into a single fund. Gaddafi travelled around Libya gathering intelligence and developing connections with sympathizers, but the government's intelligence services ignored him, considering him little threat. Graduating in August 1965, Gaddafi became a communications officer in the army's signal corps. In April 1966, he was assigned to the United Kingdom for further training; over 9 months he underwent an English-language course at , , an signal instructors course in , , and an infantry signal instructors course at. Despite later rumours to the contrary, he did not attend the. The Bovington signal course's director reported that Gaddafi successfully overcame problems learning English, displaying a firm command of voice procedure. In response to your own will, fulfilling your most heartfelt wishes, answering your most incessant demands for change and regeneration, and your longing to strive towards these ends: listening to your incitement to rebel, your armed forces have undertaken the overthrow of the corrupt regime, the stench of which has sickened and horrified us all. By a single stroke it has lightened the long dark night in which the Turkish domination was followed first by Italian rule, then by this reactionary and decadent regime which was no more than a hotbed of extortion, faction, treachery and treason. Corruption and entrenched systems of patronage were widespread throughout the oil industry. Arab nationalism was increasingly popular, and protests flared up following Egypt's 1967 defeat in the with Israel; Idris' administration was seen as pro-Israeli due to its alliance with the Western powers. Anti-Western riots broke out in Tripoli and Benghazi, while Libyan workers shut down oil terminals in solidarity with Egypt. By 1969, the U. Although claims have been made that they knew of Gaddafi's Free Officers Movement, they have since claimed ignorance, stating that they were instead monitoring Abdul Aziz Shalhi's Black Boots revolutionary group. In mid-1969, Idris travelled abroad to spend the summer in Turkey and Greece. On 1 September, they occupied airports, police depots, radio stations, and government offices in Tripoli and Benghazi. Gaddafi took control of the Berka barracks in Benghazi, while Omar Meheisha occupied Tripoli barracks and Jalloud seized the city's anti-aircraft batteries. Khweldi Hameidi was sent to arrest crown prince , and force him to relinquish his claim to the throne. They met no serious resistance, and wielded little violence against the monarchists. Once Gaddafi removed the monarchical government, he announced the foundation of the. Gaddafi insisted that the Free Officers' coup represented a revolution, marking the start of widespread change in the socio-economic and political nature of Libya. Consolidating leadership: 1969—1973 The 12 member central committee of the Free Officers proclaimed themselves the RCC , the government of the new republic. Lieutenant Gaddafi became RCC Chairman, and therefore the de facto head of state, also appointing himself to the rank of colonel and becoming commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Jalloud became Prime Minister, while a civilian Council of Ministers headed by Sulaiman Maghribi was founded to implement RCC policy. Libya's administrative capital was moved from al-Beida to Tripoli. The flag of republican Libya used by Gaddafi's government from 1969 to 1972 Although theoretically a collegial body operating through consensus building, Gaddafi dominated the RCC; some of the others attempted to constrain what they saw as his excesses. Gaddafi remained the government's public face, with the identities of the other RCC members only being publicly revealed on 10 January 1970. All young men from typically rural working and middle-class backgrounds, none had university degrees; in this way they were distinct from the wealthy, highly educated conservatives who previously governed the country. The coup completed, the RCC proceeded with their intentions of consolidating the revolutionary government and modernizing the country. They purged monarchists and members of Idris' clan from Libya's political world and armed forces; Gaddafi believed this elite were opposed to the will of the Libyan people and had to be expunged. Idris was sentenced to execution in absentia. In May 1970, the Revolutionary Intellectuals Seminar was held to bring intellectuals in line with the revolution, while that year's Legislative Review and Amendment united secular and religious law codes, introducing into the legal system. In September 1971, Gaddafi resigned, claiming to be dissatisfied with the pace of reform, but returned to his position within a month. In February 1973, he resigned again, once more returning the following month. Economic and social reform Gaddafi at an Arab summit in Libya in 1969, shortly after the September Revolution that toppled. Gaddafi sits in military uniform in the middle, surrounded by Egyptian President left and Syrian President right. The RCC's early economic policy has been characterized as being in orientation. A number of schemes were established to aid entrepreneurs and develop a Libyan bourgeoisie. All land that had either been expropriated from Italian settlers or which was not in use was expropriated and redistributed. Irrigation systems were established along the northern coastline and around various inland oases. Production costs often outstripped the value of the produce and thus Libyan agricultural production remained in deficit, relying heavily on state subsidies. With as the country's primary export, Gaddafi sought to improve Libya's oil sector. In October 1969, he proclaimed the current trade terms unfair, benefiting foreign corporations more than the Libyan state, and by threatening to reduce production. In December Jalloud successfully increased the price of Libyan oil. In 1970, other states followed suit, leading to a global increase in the price of crude oil. Increasing state control over the oil sector, the RCC began a program of , starting with the expropriation of 's share of the British Petroleum-N. Hunt Sahir Field in December 1971. In September 1973, it was announced that all foreign oil producers active in Libya were to see 51% of their operation nationalized. For Gaddafi, this was an important step towards socialism. In 1971, Egypt's , Libya's Gaddafi and Syria's signed an agreement. The agreement never materialized into a federal union between the three Arab states. The RCC implemented measures for social reform, adopting sharia as a basis. The consumption of alcohol was banned, night clubs and Christian churches were shut down, traditional Libyan dress was encouraged, and Arabic was decreed as the only language permitted in official communications and on road signs. The RCC doubled the , introduced statutory price controls, and implemented compulsory rent reductions of between 30 and 40%. Gaddafi also wanted to combat the strict social restrictions that had been imposed on women by the previous regime, establishing the Revolutionary Women's Formation to encourage reform. In 1970, a law was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and insisting on wage parity. In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a Libyan General Women's Federation. In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of any females under the age of sixteen and ensuring that a woman's consent was a necessary prerequisite for a marriage. Gaddafi's regime opened up a wide range of educational and employment opportunities for women, although these primarily benefited a minority in the urban middle-classes. From 1969 to 1973, it used oil money to fund social welfare programs, which led to house-building projects and improved healthcare and education. House building became a major social priority, designed to eliminate homelessness and to replace the created by Libya's growing urbanization. The health sector was also expanded; by 1978, Libya had 50% more hospitals than it had in 1968, while the number of doctors had grown from 700 to over 3000 in that decade. Compulsory education was expanded from 6 to 9 years, while adult literacy programs and free university education were introduced. In doing so the government helped to integrate the poorer strata of Libyan society into the education system. Through these measures, the RCC greatly expanded the , providing employment for thousands. These early social programs proved popular within Libya. This popularity was partly due to Gaddafi's personal charisma, youth and underdog status as a Bedouin, as well as his rhetoric emphasizing his role as the successor to the anti-Italian fighter. To combat the country's strong regional and tribal divisions, the RCC promoted the idea of a unified pan-Libyan identity. In doing so, they tried discrediting tribal leaders as agents of the old regime, and in August 1971 a Sabha military court tried many of them for counter-revolutionary activity. Long-standing administrative boundaries were re-drawn, crossing tribal boundaries, while pro-revolutionary modernisers replaced traditional leaders, but the communities they served often rejected them. Realizing the failures of the modernizers, Gaddafi created the ASU in June 1971, a mass mobilization of which he was president. It remained heavily bureaucratic and failed to mobilize mass support in the way Gaddafi had envisioned. Foreign relations Gaddafi left with Egyptian President Nasser in 1969. The influence of Nasser's Arab nationalism over the RCC was immediately apparent. The administration was instantly by the neighbouring Arab nationalist regimes in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Sudan, with Egypt sending experts to aid the inexperienced RCC. Gaddafi propounded ideas, proclaiming the need for a single Arab state stretching across and the. In December 1969, Libya signed the Tripoli Charter alongside Egypt and Sudan. This established the Arab Revolutionary Front, a pan-national union designed as a first step towards the eventual political unification of the three nations. In 1970 Syria declared its intention to join. Nasser died unexpectedly in November 1970, with Gaddafi playing a prominent role at his funeral. Nasser was succeeded by , who suggested that rather than creating a unified state, the Arab states should create , implemented in April 1971; in doing so, Egypt, Syria and Sudan received large grants of Libyan oil money. In February 1972, Gaddafi and Sadat signed an unofficial charter of merger, but it was never implemented because relations broke down the following year. Sadat became increasingly wary of Libya's radical direction, and the September 1973 deadline for implementing the Federation passed by with no action taken. After the 1969 coup, representatives of the —France, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the —were called to meet RCC representatives. Hoping to ingratiate themselves with Gaddafi, in 1970 the U. Such attempts to form a working relationship with the RCC failed; Gaddafi was determined to reassert national sovereignty and expunge what he described as foreign colonial and imperialist influences. His administration insisted that the U. Moving to reduce Italian influence, in October 1970 all Italian-owned assets were expropriated and the 12,000-strong was expelled from Libya alongside the smaller community of. Italy complained that this was in contravention of the 1956 Italo-Libyan Treaty, although no sanctions were forthcoming. Aiming to reduce power in the Mediterranean, in 1971 Libya requested that cease allowing to use its land for a military base, in turn offering Malta foreign aid. Compromising, Malta's government continued allowing NATO to use the island, but only on the condition that NATO would not use it for launching attacks on Arab territory. Over the coming decade, Gaddafi's government developed stronger political and economic links with 's Maltese administration, and under Libya's urging Malta did not renew the UK's airbases on the island in 1980. Orchestrating a military build-up, the RCC began purchasing weapons from France and the Soviet Union. The commercial relationship with the latter led to an increasingly strained relationship with the U. A 1972 anti-Gaddafist British including an interview with Gaddafi about his support for foreign militants Gaddafi was especially critical of the U. He believed that Palestinian violence against Israeli and Western targets was the justified response of an oppressed people who were fighting against the colonization of their homeland. In June 1972 Gaddafi created the First Nasserite Volunteers Centre to train anti-Israeli guerrillas. Like Nasser, Gaddafi favoured the Palestinian leader and his group, , over more militant and Palestinian groups. As the years progressed however, Gaddafi's relationship with Arafat became strained, with Gaddafi considering him too moderate and calling for more violent action. Instead he supported militias like the , , the , , the , and the. He funded the whose members perpetrated the 1972 of Israeli athletes in West Germany, and had the killed militants' bodies flown to Libya for a hero's funeral. Gaddafi financially supported other militant groups across the world, including the , the , the , the and the in , the among other in the fight against in , the , , , the , and the in , and the , the , the , and the in the. Gaddafi was indiscriminate in the causes which he funded, sometimes switching from supporting one side in a conflict to the other, as in the. Throughout the 1970s these groups received financial support from Libya, which came to be seen as a leader in the 's struggle against and. He initiated this with a 5-point plan, the first point of which dissolved all existing laws, to be replaced by revolutionary enactments. The second point proclaimed that all opponents of the revolution had to be removed, while the third initiated an administrative revolution that Gaddafi proclaimed would remove all traces of and the. He began to lecture on this new phase of the revolution in Libya, Egypt, and France. As a process, it had many similarities with the implemented in China. As part of this Popular Revolution, Gaddafi invited Libya's people to found as conduits for raising political consciousness. Although offering little guidance for how to set up these councils, Gaddafi claimed that they would offer a form of that was more democratic than a traditional party-based. He hoped that the councils would mobilise the people behind the RCC, erode the power of the traditional leaders and the bureaucracy, and allow for a new legal system chosen by the people. Many such committees were established in schools and colleges, where they were responsible for vetting staff, courses, and textbooks to determine if they were compatible with the country's revolutionary ideology. The People's Committees led to a high percentage of public involvement in decision making, within the limits permitted by the RCC, but exacerbated tribal divisions. They also served as a surveillance system, aiding the security services in locating individuals with views critical of the RCC, leading to the arrest of , , and. Operating in a pyramid structure, the base form of these Committees were local working groups, who sent elected representatives to the district level, and from there to the national level, divided between the and the. Above these remained Gaddafi and the RCC, who remained responsible for all major decisions. In crossing regional and tribal identities, the committee system aided national integration and centralization and tightened Gaddafi's control over the state and administrative apparatus. Third Universal Theory and The Green Book Main articles: and In June 1973, Gaddafi created a political ideology as a basis for the Popular Revolution:. This approach regarded both the U. In this respect it was similar to the developed by China's political leader. As part of this theory, Gaddafi praised as a progressive force and advocated the creation of a pan-Arab state which would lead the Islamic and Third Worlds against imperialism. Gaddafi saw Islam as having a key role in this ideology, calling for an that returned to the origins of the , rejecting scholarly interpretations and the ; in doing so, he angered many Libyan clerics. During 1973 and 1974, his government deepened the legal reliance on sharia, for instance by introducing as punishment for those convicted of adultery or homosexual activity. Gaddafi in the 1970s Gaddafi summarised Third International Theory in three short volumes published between 1975 and 1979, collectively known as. Volume one was devoted to the issue of democracy, outlining the flaws of representative systems in favour of direct, participatory GPCs. The second dealt with Gaddafi's beliefs regarding socialism, while the third explored social issues regarding the family and the tribe. While the first two volumes advocated radical reform, the third adopted a stance, proclaiming that while men and women were equal, they were biologically designed for different roles in life. Meanwhile, in September 1975, Gaddafi implemented further measures to increase popular mobilization, introducing objectives to improve the relationship between the Councils and the ASU. In 1975, Gaddafi's government declared a state monopoly on foreign trade. Its increasingly radical reforms, coupled with the large amount of oil revenue being spent on foreign causes, generated discontent in Libya, particularly among the country's merchant class. In 1974, Libya saw its first civilian attack on Gaddafi's government when a Benghazi army building was bombed. Much of the opposition centred around the RCC member , and with fellow RCC member he began plotting a coup against Gaddafi. In 1975 their plot was exposed and the pair fled into exile, receiving asylum from Sadat's Egypt. In the aftermath only five RCC members remained, and power was further concentrated in Gaddafi's hands. This led to the RCC's official abolition in March 1977. In September 1975, Gaddafi purged the army, arresting around 200 senior officers, and in October he founded the clandestine Office for the Security of the Revolution. During that year, anti-Gaddafist student demonstrations broke out at the universities of Tripoli and Benghazi, resulting in clashes with both Gaddafist students and police. The RCC responded with mass arrests, and introduced compulsory for young people. In January 1977, two dissenting students and a number of army officers were publicly hanged; condemned it as the first time in Gaddafist Libya that dissenters had been executed for purely political crimes. Dissent also arose from conservative clerics and the Muslim Brotherhood, who accused Gaddafi of moving towards Marxism and criticized his abolition of private property as being against the Islamic ; these forces were then persecuted as anti-revolutionary, while all privately owned Islamic colleges and universities were shut down. Foreign relations Following Anwar Sadat's ascension to the Egyptian presidency, Libya's relations with Egypt deteriorated. Over the coming years, the two slipped into a state of. Sadat was perturbed by Gaddafi's unpredictability and insistence that Egypt required a cultural revolution akin to that being carried out in Libya. In February 1973, Israeli forces shot down , which had strayed from Egyptian airspace into Israeli-held territory during a sandstorm. Gaddafi was infuriated that Egypt had not done more to prevent the incident, and in retaliation planned to destroy the , a British ship chartered by American Jews to sail to for Israel's 25th anniversary. Gaddafi ordered an Egyptian submarine to target the ship, but Sadat cancelled the order, fearing a military escalation. Gaddafi in 1976 with his son on his lap Gaddafi was later infuriated when Egypt and Syria planned the against Israel without consulting him, and was angered when Egypt conceded to peace talks rather than continuing the war. Gaddafi became openly hostile to Egypt's leader, calling for Sadat's overthrow. When Sudanese President took Sadat's side, Gaddafi also spoke out against him, encouraging the 's attempt to overthrow Nimeiry. Relations with Syria also soured over the events in the. Focusing his attention elsewhere in Africa, in late 1972 and early 1973, Libya invaded Chad to annex the uranium-rich. Intent on propagating Islam, in 1973 Gaddafi founded the Islamic Call Society, which had opened 132 centres across Africa within a decade. In 1973 he converted Gabonese President , an action which he repeated three years later with , president of the. Gaddafi was also keen on reducing Israeli influence within Africa, using financial incentives to successfully convince eight African states to break off diplomatic relations with Israel in 1973. A strong relationship was also established between Gaddafi's Libya and Prime Minister 's Pakistani government, with the two countries exchanging nuclear research and military assistance; this relationship ended after Bhutto was deposed by in 1977. Gaddafi sought to develop closer links in the ; in January 1974 Libya and Tunisia announced a political union, the. Although advocated by Gaddafi and Tunisian President , the move was deeply unpopular in Tunisia and it was soon abandoned. Retaliating, Gaddafi sponsored anti-government militants in Tunisia into the 1980s. Seeking to diversify Libya's economy, Gaddafi's government began purchasing shares in major European corporations like as well as buying real estate in Malta and Italy, which would become a valuable source of income during the 1980s oil slump. A new, all-green banner was adopted as the country's flag. Officially, the Jamahiriya was a in which the people ruled themselves through the 187 , where all adult Libyans participated and voted on national decisions. These then sent members to the annual General People's Congress, which was broadcast live on television. In principle, the People's Congresses were Libya's highest authority, with major decisions proposed by government officials or with Gaddafi himself requiring the consent of the People's Congresses. On rare occasions, the GPC opposed Gaddafi's suggestions, sometimes successfully; notably, when Gaddafi called on primary schools to be abolished, believing that was healthier for children, the GPC rejected the idea. In other instances, Gaddafi pushed through laws without the GPC's support, such as when he desired to allow women into the armed forces. At other times, he ordered snap elections when it appeared that the GPC would enact laws he opposed. Gaddafi proclaimed that the People's Congresses provided for Libya's every political need, rendering other political organizations unnecessary; all non-authorized groups, including political parties, professional associations, independent trade unions and women's groups, were banned. Despite these restrictions, St. Within a year he was backtracking, announcing that sharia was inappropriate for the Jamahiriya because it guaranteed the protection of private property, contravening The Green Book's socialism. His emphasis on placing his own work on a par with the Qur'an led conservative clerics to accuse him of , furthering their opposition to his regime. In July 1977, a with Egypt, in which the Egyptians defeated Libya despite their technological inferiority. The conflict lasted one week before both sides agreed to sign a peace treaty that was brokered by several Arab states. Both Egypt and Sudan had aligned themselves with the U. In recognition of the growing commercial relationship between Libya and the Soviets, Gaddafi was invited to visit in December 1976; there, he entered talks with. In August 1977 he then visited , where he met its leader , with whom he had a much warmer relationship. The management of the economy was increasingly socialist in intent and effect with wealth in housing, capital and land significantly redistributed or in the process of redistribution. Private enterprise was virtually eliminated, largely replaced by a centrally controlled economy. In December 1978, Gaddafi stepped down as Secretary-General of the GPC, announcing his new focus on revolutionary rather than governmental activities; this was part of his new emphasis on separating the apparatus of the revolution from the government. Libya began to turn towards socialism. In March 1978, the government issued guidelines for housing redistribution, attempting to ensure the population that every adult Libyan owned his own home and that nobody was enslaved to paying their rent. Most families were banned from owning more than one house, while former rental properties were expropriated by the state and sold to the tenants at a heavily subsidized price. On 2 March 1979, the GPC announced the separation of government and revolution, the latter being represented by new Revolutionary Committees, who operated in tandem with the People's Committees in schools, universities, unions, the police force and the military. Dominated by revolutionary zealots, most of whom were youths, the Revolutionary Committees were led by Mohammad Maghgoub and a Central Coordinating Office based in Tripoli, and met with Gaddafi annually. Membership of the Revolutionary Committees was drawn from within the BPCs. Publishing a weekly magazine The Green March al-Zahf al-Akhdar , in October 1980 they took control of the press. In May 1980, measures to redistribute and equalize wealth were implemented; anyone with over 1000 in their bank account saw that extra money expropriated. The following year, the GPC announced that the government would take control of all import, export and distribution functions, with state supermarkets replacing privately owned businesses; this led to a decline in the availability of consumer goods and the development of a thriving. Gaddafi was also frustrated by the slow pace of social reform on women's issues, and in 1979 launched a Revolutionary Women's Formation to replace the more gradualist Libyan General Women's Federation. In 1978 he had established a Women's Military Academy in Tripoli, encouraging all women to enlist for training. The measure was hugely controversial, and voted down by the GPC in February 1983. Most internal opposition came from , who were inspired by the events of the 1979. In February 1978, Gaddafi discovered that his head of military intelligence was plotting to kill him, and began to increasingly entrust security to his Qaddadfa tribe. Many who had seen their wealth and property confiscated turned against the administration, and a number of Western-funded opposition groups were founded by exiles. Most prominent was the NFSL , founded in 1981 by , which orchestrated militant attacks against Libya's government. Another, al-Borkan, began killing Libyan diplomats abroad. Not an imaginary one that people write about in books, but a concrete Utopia. Relations were further damaged at the end of the year when in Tripoli in solidarity with the perpetrators of the. The following year, Libyan fighters began intercepting U. Libyan relations with Lebanon and communities across the world also deteriorated due to the August 1978 disappearance of imam when visiting Libya; the Lebanese accused Gaddafi of having him killed or imprisoned, a charge he denied. Relations with Syria improved, as Gaddafi and Syrian President shared an enmity with Israel and Egypt's Sadat. In 1980, they proposed a political union, with Libya paying off Syria's £1 billion debt to the Soviet Union; although pressures led Assad to pull out, they remained allies. Another key ally was Uganda, and in 1979, Gaddafi sent 2,500 troops into of President from Tanzanian invaders. The mission failed; 400 Libyans were killed and they were forced to retreat. Focusing on irrigation projects, 1983 saw construction start on Libya's largest and most expensive infrastructure project, the ; although designed to be finished by the end of the decade, it remained incomplete at the start of the 21st century. Military spending increased, while other administrative budgets were cut back. Libya's foreign debt rose, and austerity measures were introduced to promote self-reliance; in August 1985 there was a mass deportation of foreign workers, most of them Egyptian and Tunisian. Domestic threats continued to plague Gaddafi; in May 1984, his home was unsuccessfully attacked by a militia—linked either to the NFSL or the Muslim Brotherhood—and in the aftermath 5000 dissidents were arrested. Construction for the Great Man-Made River Project Libya had long supported the militia in neighbouring Chad, and in December 1980, re-invaded Chad at the request of the FROLINAT-controlled to aid in the civil war; in January 1981, Gaddafi suggested a political merger. The OAU rejected this, and called for a Libyan withdrawal, which came about in November 1981. The civil war resumed, and so Libya sent troops back in, clashing with French forces who supported the southern Chadian forces. Many African nations had tired of Libya's interference in their affairs; by 1980, nine African states had severed diplomatic relations with Libya, while in 1982 the OAU cancelled its scheduled conference in Tripoli to prevent Gaddafi gaining chairmanship. Proposing political unity with Morocco, in August 1984, Gaddafi and Moroccan monarch signed the Oujda Treaty, forming the Arab-African Union; such a union was considered surprising due to the strong political differences and longstanding enmity that existed between the two governments. Relations remained strained, particularly due to Morocco's friendly relations with the US and Israel; in August 1986, Hassan abolished the union. In 1981, the new US President pursued a hard line approach to Libya, erroneously claiming it to be a of the Soviet Union. In turn, Gaddafi played up his commercial relationship with the Soviets, visiting Moscow again in April 1981 and 1985, and in 1978 threatening to join the. The Soviets were nevertheless cautious of Gaddafi, seeing him as an unpredictable extremist. Beginning military exercises in the Gulf of Sirte — an area of sea that Libya claimed as a part of its territorial waters — two Libyan planes monitoring them. Closing down Libya's embassy in Washington, D. In March 1982, the US implemented an embargo of Libyan oil, and in January 1986 ordered all US companies to cease operating in the country, although several hundred workers remained when the Libyan government doubled their pay. Diplomatic relations also broke down with the UK, after Libyan diplomats were accused in the killing of , a British policewoman stationed outside their London embassy, in April 1984. In Spring 1986, ; the Libyan military retaliated, but failed as the US sank several Libyan ships. After the US accused Libya of orchestrating the , in which two American soldiers died, Reagan decided to retaliate militarily. In , orchestrated on 15 April 1986, US military planes launched a series of air-strikes on Libya, bombing military installations in various parts of the country, killing around 100 Libyans, including several civilians. One of the targets had been Gaddafi's home. Himself unharmed, two of Gaddafi's sons were injured, and he claimed that his four-year-old adopted daughter Hanna was killed, although her existence has since been questioned. In the immediate aftermath, Gaddafi retreated to the desert to meditate, while there were sporadic clashes between Gaddafists and army officers who wanted to overthrow the government. Although the US was condemned internationally, Reagan received a popularity boost at home. Publicly lambasting US imperialism, Gaddafi's reputation as an anti-imperialist was strengthened both domestically and across the Arab world, and in June 1986, he ordered the names of the month to be changed in Libya. Restrictions were placed on the activities of the Revolutionary Committees; in March 1988, their role was narrowed by the newly created Ministry for Mass Mobilization and Revolutionary Leadership to restrict their violence and judicial role, while in August 1988 Gaddafi publicly criticized them. Gaddafi at the 12th African Union conference in 2009 In March, hundreds of political prisoners were freed, with Gaddafi falsely claiming that there were no further political prisoners in Libya. In June, Libya's government issued the Great Green Charter on Human Rights in the Era of the Masses, in which 27 articles laid out goals, rights and guarantees to improve the situation of human rights in Libya, restricting the use of the and calling for its eventual abolition. Many of the measures suggested in the charter would be implemented the following year, although others remained inactive. Also in 1989, the government founded the , to be awarded to figures from the Third World who had struggled against colonialism and imperialism; the first year's winner was South African anti-apartheid activist. From 1994 through to 1997, the government initiated cleansing committees to root out corruption, particularly in the economic sector. In the aftermath of the 1986 U. In 1987, of at a facility in Rabta, although publicly denying it was stockpiling chemical weapons, and unsuccessfully attempted to develop nuclear weapons. The period also saw a growth in domestic Islamist opposition, formulated into groups like the and the. A number of assassination attempts against Gaddafi were foiled, and in turn, 1989 saw the security forces raid mosques believed to be centres of counter-revolutionary preaching. In October 1993, elements of the increasingly marginalized army initiated a failed coup in , while in September 1995, Islamists launched an insurgency in Benghazi, and in July 1996 an anti-Gaddafist football riot broke out in Tripoli. The Revolutionary Committees experienced a resurgence to combat these Islamists. In 1989, Gaddafi was overjoyed by the foundation of the , uniting Libya in an economic pact with Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria, viewing it as beginnings of a new Pan-Arab union. Meanwhile, Libya stepped up its support for anti-Western militants such as the Provisional IRA, and in 1988, was blown up over in Scotland, killing 243 passengers and 16 crew members, plus 11 people on the ground. British police investigations identified two Libyans — and — as the chief suspects, and in November 1991 issued a declaration demanding that Libya hand them over. When Gaddafi refused, citing the , the UN imposed Resolution 748 in March 1992, initiating economic sanctions against Libya which had deep repercussions for the country's economy. Further problems arose with the West when in January 1989,. Many African states opposed the UN sanctions, with Mandela criticizing them on a visit to Gaddafi in October 1997, when he praised Libya for its work in fighting apartheid and awarded Gaddafi the. They would only be suspended in 1998 when Libya agreed to allow the extradition of the suspects to the , in a process overseen by Mandela. Pan-Africanism, reconciliation and privatization: 1999—2011 Gaddafi wearing an insignia showing the image of the African continent At the 20th century's end, Gaddafi—frustrated by the failure of his Pan-Arab ideals—increasingly rejected Arab nationalism in favour of , emphasising Libya's African identity. From 1997 to 2000, Libya initiated cooperative agreements or bilateral aid arrangements with 10 African states, and in 1999 joined the. In June 1999, Gaddafi visited Mandela in South Africa, and the following month attended the OAU summit in Algiers, calling for greater political and economic integration across the continent and advocating the foundation of a. He became one of the founders of the AU , initiated in July 2002 to replace the OAU; at the opening ceremonies, he called for African states to reject conditional aid from the developed world, a direct contrast to the message of South African President. They him in February 2009, in a ceremony held in , Ethiopia; this coincided with Gaddafi's election as AU chairman for a year. The era saw Libya's return to the international arena. In 1999, Libya began secret talks with the British government to normalize relations. In 2001, Gaddafi condemned the on the U. His government continued suppressing domestic Islamism, at the same time as Gaddafi called for the wider application of sharia law. Libya also cemented connexions with China and North Korea, being visited by Chinese President in April 2002. Influenced by the events of the , in December 2003, Libya renounced its possession of , decommissioning its chemical and nuclear weapons programs. Relations with the U. The following month, Gaddafi travelled to the headquarters of the EU in , signifying improved relations between Libya and the EU; the latter ended its sanctions in October. During his 2008 visit to Russia, Gaddafi pitched his Bedouin tent in the grounds of the. Here he is joined by and French singer. Libya was a strategic player in Europe's attempts to stem illegal migration from Africa. Gaddafi also completed agreements with the Italian government that they would invest in various infrastructure projects as reparations for past Italian colonial policies in Libya. In exchange, Libya would take measures to combat coming from its shores and boost investment in Italian companies. During their tenures Berlusconi and Gaddafi built up a close friendship. Removed from the U. In Spring 2010, Gaddafi proclaimed jihad against Switzerland after Swiss police accused two of his family members of criminal activity in the country, resulting in the breakdown of bilateral relations. Gaddafi welcomed these reforms, calling for wide-scale privatization in a March 2003 speech. Sectors of Libya's population reacted against these reforms with public demonstrations, and in March 2006, revolutionary hard-liners took control of the GPC cabinet; although scaling back the pace of the changes, they did not halt them. In 2010, plans were announced that would have seen half the Libyan economy privatized over the following decade. While there was no accompanying political liberalization, with Gaddafi retaining predominant control, in March 2010, the government devolved further powers to the municipal councils. Rising numbers of reformist technocrats attained positions in the country's governance; best known was Gaddafi's son and heir apparent , who was openly critical of Libya's human rights record. He led a group who proposed the drafting of the new constitution, although it was never adopted. Involved in encouraging tourism, Saif founded several privately run media channels in 2008, but after criticizing the government they were nationalized in 2009. In October 2010, Gaddafi apologized to African leaders for the historical enslavement of Africans by the. People protesting against Gaddafi in , Ireland, March 2011 Following the start of the in 2011, Gaddafi spoke out in favour of Tunisian President , then threatened by the. He suggested that Tunisia's people would be satisfied if Ben Ali introduced a Jamahiriyah system there. Fearing domestic protest, Libya's government implemented preventative measures by reducing food prices, purging the army leadership of potential defectors, and releasing several Islamist prisoners. This proved ineffective, and on 17 February 2011, major protests broke out against Gaddafi's government. Unlike Tunisia or Egypt, Libya was largely religiously homogeneous and had no strong Islamist movement, but there was widespread dissatisfaction with the corruption and entrenched systems of patronage, while unemployment had reached around 30%. Shocked at the government's response, a number of senior politicians resigned or defected to the protesters' side. The uprising spread quickly through Libya's less economically developed eastern half. By February's end, eastern cities like Benghazi, Misrata, al-Bayda and Tobruk were controlled by rebels, and the Benghazi-based NTC formed to represent them. Pro-Gaddafi protests in Tripoli, May 2011 In the conflict's early months it appeared that Gaddafi's government—with its greater fire-power—would be victorious. Both sides disregarded the , committing human rights abuses, including arbitrary arrests, torture, extrajudicial executions, and revenge attacks. On 26 February the passed , suspending Libya from the , implementing sanctions and calling for an ICC investigation into the killing of unarmed civilians. In March, the Security Council declared a to protect the civilian population from aerial bombardment, calling on foreign nations to enforce it; it also specifically prohibited foreign occupation. Ignoring this, Qatar sent hundreds of troops to support the dissidents, and along with France and the United Arab Emirates provided the NTC with weaponry and military training. NATO announced that it would enforce the no-fly zone. On 30 April a NATO air strike killed and three of his grandsons in Tripoli. In June, the ICC issued arrest warrants for Gaddafi, his son Saif al-Islam, and his brother-in-law , head of state security, for charges concerning crimes against humanity. That month, published their report, finding that while Gaddafi's forces were responsible for numerous war crimes, many other allegations of mass human rights abuses lacked credible evidence and were likely fabrications by rebel forces that had been promoted by Western media. Aided by NATO air cover, the rebel militia pushed westward, defeating loyalist armies and securing control of the centre of the country. Gaining the support of communities of the , who had long been persecuted as non-Arabic speakers under Gaddafi, the NTC armies surrounded Gaddafi loyalists in several key areas of western Libya. In August, the rebels seized and , ending the last vestiges of Gaddafist power. Capture and death: September—October 2011 Main article: Only a few towns in western Libya—such as Bani Walid, Sebha and Sirte—remained Gaddafist strongholds. Retreating to Sirte after Tripoli's fall, Gaddafi announced his willingness to negotiate for a handover to a transitional government, a suggestion rejected by the NTC. Surrounding himself with bodyguards, he continually moved residences to escape NTC shelling, devoting his days to prayer and reading the Qur'an. On 20 October, Gaddafi broke out of Sirte's District 2 in a joint civilian-military convoy, hoping to take refuge in the Jarref Valley. The convoy scattered, and Gaddafi and those closest to him fled to a nearby villa, which was shelled by rebel militia from Misrata. Fleeing to a construction site, Gaddafi and his inner cohort hid inside drainage pipes while his bodyguards battled the rebels; in the conflict, Gaddafi suffered head injuries from a grenade blast while defence minister was killed. The Misrata militia took Gaddafi prisoner, causing serious injuries as they tried to apprehend him; the events were filmed on a mobile phone. Pulled onto the front of a pick-up truck, he fell off as it drove away. His semi-naked, lifeless body was then placed into an ambulance and taken to Misrata; upon arrival, he was found to be dead. Official NTC accounts claimed that Gaddafi was caught in a cross-fire and died from his bullet wounds. Other eye-witness accounts claimed that rebels had fatally shot Gaddafi in the stomach. Gaddafi's son , who had also been among the convoy, was similarly captured and found dead several hours later, most probably from an. Around 140 Gaddafi loyalists were rounded up from the convoy; the corpses of 66 were later found at the nearby Mahari Hotel, victims of extrajudicial execution. Libya's chief forensic pathologist, Othman al-Zintani, carried out the autopsies of Gaddafi, his son, and Jabr in the days following their deaths; although the pathologist informed press that Gaddafi had died from a to the head, the autopsy report was not made public. On the afternoon of Gaddafi's death, NTC Prime Minister publicly revealed the news. Gaddafi's corpse was placed in the freezer of a local market alongside the corpses of Yunis Jabr and Mutassim; the bodies were publicly displayed for four days, with Libyans from all over the country coming to view them. In response to international calls, on 24 October Jibril announced that a commission would investigate Gaddafi's death. On 25 October, the NTC announced that Gaddafi had been buried at an unidentified location in the desert. Seeking vengeance for the killing, Gaddafist sympathizers severely wounded and tortured for several days one of those who had captured Gaddafi, 22-year-old Omran Shaaban, near Bani Walid in September 2012, who eventually died in France. The path is for all the people of the world who abhor the dangerous confrontation between the Warsaw and North Atlantic military alliances. It is for all those who believe that all nations of the world are brothers under the aegis of the rule of God. Gaddafi's ideological worldview was moulded by his environment, namely his Islamic faith, his Bedouin upbringing, and his disgust at the actions of European colonialists in Libya. As a schoolboy, Gaddafi adopted the ideologies of and , influenced in particular by , the thought of the Egyptian President Nasser, whom Gaddafi regarded as his hero. He regarded this system as a practical alternative to the then-dominant international models of Western capitalism and. Gaddafi called for the Arab world to regain its dignity and assert a major place on the world stage, blaming Arab backwardness on stagnation resulting from rule, European colonialism and imperialism, and corrupt and repressive monarchies. Gaddafi's Arab nationalist views led him to the Pan-Arabist belief in the need for unity across the Arab world, combining the Arab nation under a single nation-state. To this end, he had proposed political union with five neighbouring Arab states by 1974, although without success. In keeping with his views regarding Arabs, his political stance was described as. Gaddafi saw his socialist Jamahiriyah as a model for the Arab, Islamic, and non-aligned worlds to follow, and in his speeches declared that his Third International Theory would eventually guide the whole world. He nevertheless had minimal success in exporting the ideology outside of Libya. Along with Arab nationalism, anti-imperialism was also a defining feature of Gaddafi's regime during its early years. He believed in opposing Western imperialism and colonialism in the Arab world, including any Western expansionism through the form of Israel. For many years, was a fundamental component of Gaddafi's ideology. He believed that the state of Israel should not exist, and that any Arab compromise with the Israeli government was a betrayal of the Arab people. Islamic modernism and Islamic socialism Gaddafi rejected the approach to Arab nationalism that had been pervasive in Syria. He insisted that Islamic law should be the basis for the law of the state, blurring any distinction between the religious and secular realms. He desired unity across the Islamic world, and encouraged the propagation of the faith elsewhere; on a 2010 visit to Italy, he paid a modelling agency to find 200 young Italian women for a lecture he gave urging them to convert. According to Gaddafi biographer Jonathan Bearman, in Islamic terms Gaddafi was a rather than a , for he subordinated religion to the political system rather than seeking to Islamicize the state as Islamists sought to do. His interpretation of Islam was nevertheless idiosyncratic, and he clashed with conservative Libyan clerics. Many criticized his attempts to encourage women to enter traditionally male-only sectors of society, such as the armed forces. Attainment of such freedom depends on the extent of man's ownership of his needs; ownership that is personal and sacredly guaranteed, i. For him, a socialist society could be defined as one in which men controlled their own needs, either through personal ownership or through a collective. Although the early policies pursued by his government were state capitalist in orientation, by 1978 he believed that private ownership of the means of production was exploitative and thus he sought to move Libya away from capitalism and towards socialism. The extent to which Libya became socialist under Gaddafi is disputed. In his view, ideologies like Marxism and Zionism were alien to the Islamic world and were a threat to the , or global Islamic community. While acknowledging the Marxist influence on Gaddafi's thought, Bearman stated that the Libyan leader rejected Marxism's core tenet, that of as the main engine of social development. In this he sought to replace a capitalist economy with one based on his own romanticized ideas of a traditional, pre-capitalist past. This owed much to the Islamic belief in 's natural law providing order to the universe. Gaddafi right with Nimeiry and Nasser in 1969 A very private individual, Gaddafi was given to rumination and solitude, and could be reclusive. Gaddafi's friends described him to Bianco as a loyal and generous man. Bearman noted that Gaddafi was emotionally volatile and had an impulsive temperament, with the CIA believing that the Libyan leader suffered from. He was a fan of , and said his favourite novels were , , and. Gaddafi had a large wardrobe, and sometimes changed his outfit multiple times a day. He favoured either a military uniform or traditional Libyan dress, tending to eschew Western-style suits. I wear a certain shirt and suddenly everyone is wearing it. His home and office at Azizia was a bunker designed by West German engineers, while the rest of his family lived in a large two-story building. Within the compound were also two tennis courts, a soccer field, several gardens, camels, and a Bedouin tent in which he entertained guests. In the 1980s, his lifestyle was considered modest in comparison to those of many other Arab leaders. He was preoccupied with his own security, regularly changing where he slept and sometimes grounding all other planes in Libya when he was flying. He made particular requests when traveling to foreign nations. During his trips to Rome, Paris, Madrid, Moscow, and New York City, he resided in a bulletproof tent, following his Bedouin traditions. Gaddafi was notably confrontational in his approach to foreign powers, and generally shunned Western ambassadors and diplomats, believing them to be spies. Gaddafi with Spanish Prime Minister in 2010 Gaddafi has been described as a womanizer. In the 1970s and 1980s there were reports of his making sexual advances toward female reporters and members of his entourage. Starting in the 1980s, he travelled with his all-female , who were allegedly sworn to a life of celibacy. After Gaddafi's death, the Libyan psychologist Seham Sergewa—part of a team investigating sexual offences during the civil war—stated that five of the guards told her they had been raped by Gaddafi and senior officials. After Gaddafi's death, the French journalist Annick Cojean published a book alleging that Gaddafi had had sexual relations with women, some in their early teenage years, who had been specially selected for him. One of those Cojean interviewed, a woman named Soraya, claimed that Gaddafi kept her imprisoned in a basement for six years, where he repeatedly raped her, urinated on her, and forced her to watch pornography, drink alcohol, and snort cocaine. Gaddafi also hired several Ukrainian nurses to care for him; one described him as kind and considerate, and was surprised that allegations of abuse had been made against him. Gaddafi married his first wife, Fatiha al-Nuri, in 1969. She was the daughter of General Khalid, a senior figure in King Idris' administration, and was from a middle-class background. Although they had one son, b. Gaddafi's second wife was , el-Brasai, a former nurse from Obeidat tribe born in. They met in 1969, following his ascension to power, when he was hospitalized with appendicitis; he claimed that it was love at first sight. The couple remained married until his death. Together they had seven biological children: b. He also adopted two children, and Milad Gaddafi. The sociologist Raymond A. A devoted to Gaddafi existed in Libya. Depictions of his face could be found throughout the country, including on postage stamps, watches, and school satchels. Quotations from The Green Book appeared on a wide variety of places, from street walls to airports and pens, and were put to for public release. Gaddafi claimed that he disliked this personality cult, but that he tolerated it because Libya's people adored him. The cult served a political purpose, with Gaddafi helping to provide a central identity for the Libyan state. Several biographers and observers characterised Gaddafi as a. He enjoyed attending lengthy public sessions where people were invited to question him; these were often televised. Throughout Libya, crowds of supporters would arrive at public events where he appeared. He was typically late to public events, and would sometimes fail to arrive. Gaddafi's domestic popularity stemmed from his overthrow of the monarchy, his removal of the Italian settlers and both American and British air bases from Libyan territory, and his redistribution of the country's land on a more equitable basis. Supporters praised Gaddafi's administration for the creation of an almost classless society through domestic reform. They stressed the regime's achievements in combating homelessness, ensuring access to food and safe drinking water, and to dramatic improvements in education; under Gaddafi, literacy rates rose significantly and all education to university level was free. Supporters have also applauded achievements in medical care, praising the universal free healthcare provided under the Gaddafist administration, with diseases like and being contained and life expectancy raised. His opposition to Western governments earned him the respect of many in the Euro-American , with the UK-based for instance embracing aspects of the Third International Theory during the 1980s. His anti-Western stance also attracted praise from the far left; in 1971, the Soviet Union awarded him the , although his mistrust of atheist Marxism prevented him from attending the ceremony in Moscow. Portrait of Gaddafi near the Libyan-Tunisian border, 2008 The Libyan anti-Gaddafist movement brought together a diverse array of groups, which had varied motives and objectives. It comprised monarchists and members of the old, pre-Gaddafist elite, conservative nationalists who backed his Arab nationalist agenda but opposed his left-wing economic reforms, technocrats who had their future prospects stunted by the coup, Islamic fundamentalists who opposed his radical reforms and rival socialists such as Ba'athists and Marxists. According to critics, the Libyan people lived in a climate of fear under Gaddafi's administration, due to his government's pervasive surveillance of civilians. Gaddafi's Libya was typically described by Western commentators as a , and has also been characterized as. His administration has also been criticized by political opponents and groups like for the carried out by the country's security services. These abuses included the repression of dissent, public executions, and the arbitrary detention of hundreds of opponents, some of whom reported being tortured. One of the most prominent examples of this was a massacre that took place in in June 1996; estimated that 1,270 prisoners were massacred. Western powers but that he had nevertheless been unable to escape control exerted over Libya. His government's treatment of non-Arab Libyans has also come in for criticism from human rights activists, with native Berbers, Italians, Jews, refugees, and foreign workers all facing persecution in Gaddafist Libya. Human rights groups also criticized the treatment of migrants, including , who passed through Gaddafi's Libya on their way to Europe. According to journalist Annick Cojean and psychologist Seham Sergewa, Gaddafi and senior officials raped and imprisoned hundreds or thousands of young women and reportedly raped several of his female bodyguards. Gaddafi's actions in promoting foreign militant groups, although regarded by him as a justifiable support for national liberation movements, was seen by the United States as interference in the domestic affairs of other nations and active support for international terrorism. Posthumous assessment A poster of Gaddafi in. International reactions to Gaddafi's death were divided. In July 2012, to form a new GNC , which officially took over governance from the NTC in August. The GNC elected as president of the chamber, and as ; when Abushagar failed to gain congressional approval, the GNC elected to the position. The pro-Gaddafists remaining in Libya came to be known as the Green Movement, and were formalized into the party, established by Khuwaildi al-Hamidi. The Libyan government prevented this party from taking part in the and banned the display of Gaddafist symbols. Gaddafists then founded a new political party, Al Fateh Al Jadeed; two of its members, Subah Mussa and Ahmed Ali, promoted the new venture by hijacking the in December 2016. Due to the lack of standardization of transcribing written and regionally pronounced Arabic, Gaddafi's name has been in various ways. A 1986 column by lists 32 spellings known from the U. A 2007 interview with Gaddafi's son confirms that Saif spelled his own name Qadhafi, and the passport of Gaddafi's son Mohammed used the spelling Gathafi. According to the variant Qaddafi was slightly more widespread, followed by Qadhafi, Gaddafi, and Gadhafi. Scientific romanizations of the name are Qaḏḏāfī , , or rarely used Qadhdhāfī. Retrieved 6 October 2017. Retrieved 16 July 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2011. Retrieved 1 September 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2006. Archived from on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2011. Archived from on 6 October 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2011. Archived from on 5 April 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2017. Archived from on 28 February 2011. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. Retrieved 5 December 2013. Libya: The Struggle for Survival. Libya: The Struggle for Survival. Archived from on 18 June 2009. Retrieved 10 June 2009. Archived from on 16 June 2009. Retrieved 10 June 2009. Archived from on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 10 June 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2017. The New York Times. Retrieved 28 June 2012. Retrieved 26 August 2013. Retrieved 21 January 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2011. Retrieved 22 October 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2017. Retrieved 17 June 2013. Retrieved 28 October 2011. The New York Times. Retrieved 28 April 2017. The Times of India. Retrieved 30 August 2010. Retrieved 28 February 2011. The New York Times. Retrieved 28 February 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2013. Retrieved 25 October 2013. Retrieved 8 September 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017. Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism. Durham and London: Duke University Press. The Radical Right in Britain: Social Imperialism to the BNP. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Archived from on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2011. Archived from on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 16 June 2013. Retrieved 1 September 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2013. Retrieved 29 October 2011. The New York Times. Retrieved 29 June 2012. Daily Times of Nigeria. Archived from on 17 June 2013. Retrieved 29 October 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2013. Archived from on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2013. Retrieved 9 January 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2017. The New York Times. Retrieved 22 March 2017. Gadafi: Voice from the Desert. Qaddafi and the Libyan Revolution. Gaddafi's Harem: The Story of a Young Woman and the Abuses of Power in Libya. New York: Grove Press. Libya: The Elusive Revolution. The Journal of Modern African Studies. Harris, Lillian Craig 1986. Libya: Qadhafi's Revolution and the Modern State. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Seeking Gaddafi: Libya, the West and the Arab Spring. Africa in World Politics: A Pan-African Perspective. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Libya: The Struggle for Survival 2nd illustrated ed. Libya and the West: From Independence to Lockerbie. Oxford: Centre for Libyan Studies. John, Ronald Bruce 1987. Qaddafi's World Design: Libyan Foreign Policy, 1969—1987. Libya: From Colony to Revolution revised ed. Dishon, Daniel editor 1986. The Moshe Dayan Center. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list Tandon, Yash 2011. A History of Modern Libya. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Journal of Contemporary European Studies. Further reading Castro, Jose Esteban 2011. Davis, Brian Lee 1990. Qaddafi, Terrorism, and the Origins of the U. Qaddafi: His Ideology in Theory and Practice. Slouching Towards Sirte: NATO's War on Libya and Africa. Sandstorm: Libya in the Time of Revolution. London: Faber and Faber. Karniel, Yuval; Lavie-Dinur, Amit; Azran, Tal 2015. The International Communication Gazette. Monti-Belkaoui, Janice; Monti-Belkaoui, Ahmed 1996. Qaddafi: The Man and His Policies. Libya: The Rise and Fall of Qaddafi. New Haven: Yale University Press. South African Geographical Journal. John, Ronald Bruce 1983. International Journal of Middle East Studies. John, Ronald Bruce 2008. The Journal of North African Studies.

They also served as a surveillance system, aiding the security services in locating individuals with views critical of the RCC, leading to the arrest of, and. For more info e-mail via : aishagaddaf21 gmail. Like Nasser, Gaddafi favoured the Palestinian leader and his group,over more militant and Palestinian groups. Her first son Saif Al Islam born on 1972, Al Saadi Al Gaddafi the former soccer player born a year later, Hannibal and on 1976 her only daughter Ayesha. Archived from on 5 April 2013. Throughout the 1970s these groups received financial support from Libya, which came to be seen as a leader in the 's struggle against and.